Continuous Writing

Formal Letter

A formal letter, also known as a business letter, is an official letter written to address professional or official matters.

Features of a Formal Letter

• Writer’s Address: Just like in an informal letter, the writer's address appears at the top right-hand corner, followed by the date.
• Receiver’s Designation and Address: This is placed on the left-hand side, immediately after the writer's address and date.
• Salutation: This must be formal. Examples include: Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Dear Sir/Ma (when the recipient’s gender is unknown).
• Title: The subject of the letter should be written based on the given question. If written in all capital letters, it should not be underlined. If written in title case, it should be underlined.

Structure of a Formal Letter

The first paragraph should introduce the purpose of the letter clearly. For example:

First paragraph: I am writing to complain about how the senior students maltreat the junior ones.

The last paragraph should express the expected response from the recipient and show appreciation. For example:

Last paragraph: I hope that action will be taken to curb the senior students and restore order in the school.
Thank you, Ma.

Important Considerations

• Avoid using slang, jokes, informal expressions, or contractions such as I’ll, can’t, won’t.

Complementary Close

The closing appears at the lower right-hand side of the letter. The only acceptable format is:

    Yours faithfully/ Yours Sincerely,  
    [Writer’s Signature]  
    [Full Name (First Name and Surname)]  
    [Title]  

"Yours sincerely" is used when you know the recipient, while "yours faithfully" is used when you don't.

Semi-Formal Letter

A semi-formal letter is written to a distant adult relative, an adult family friend, a distant pen-pal, or an adult acquaintance. It shares similarities with an informal letter but has distinct features that make it semi-formal.

Features of a Semi-Formal Letter

1. Address: Only the writer’s address is included.
2. Salutation: Placed after the address and depends on familiarity, e.g., Dear Uncle Wale.
3. Introduction (Paragraph 1): Includes pleasantries and states the reason for writing.
4. Body of the Letter:
   • Paragraphs 2, 3, and 4: Discuss at least three key points, focusing on the purpose of writing, such as seeking advice, requesting a favor, or expressing appreciation.
5. Conclusion (Paragraph 5): Sending greetings is allowed.
6. Subscription: Usually ends with Yours sincerely. No signature is required.

Language and Tone

• The tone should be respectful.
• Colloquial expressions should be kept to a minimum.
• Slang should be avoided.
• The language should be direct and not overly wordy or circumlocutory, unlike in informal letters.

Informal Letters

An informal letter is a personal letter written to someone we know fairly well. It can be used for various reasons, such as conveying messages, sharing news, giving advice, offering congratulations, requesting information, or asking questions. Informal letters are typically addressed to friends, siblings, parents, or other close acquaintances. There is no strict format for writing this type of letter.

When writing an informal letter, the tone can be friendly and personal. Slang, colloquial expressions, abbreviations, and even codes may be used, depending on the level of familiarity with the recipient.

Key Differences Between Formal and Informal Letters

The major differences between formal and informal letters are outlined below:

1. Purpose and Tone: A formal letter follows a structured format and is written in formal language for official purposes, while an informal letter is written in a friendly tone for personal communication.
2. Usage: Formal letters are used for professional or business communication, whereas informal letters are used for casual or personal interactions.
3. Format: Formal letters adhere to a specific structure, whereas informal letters do not follow a fixed format.
4. Point of View: Formal letters are generally written in the third person, except for business letters, which may use the first person. Informal letters, however, can be written in the first, second, or third person.
5. Recipients: Formal letters are addressed to businesses, institutions, employers, or professionals, while informal letters are written to friends, family members, and acquaintances.
6. Voice: Formal letters often use passive voice, whereas informal letters tend to use an active and direct voice.
7. Sentence Structure: Formal letters contain long and complex sentences, whereas informal letters use shorter and simpler sentences for easy comprehension.
8. Length: A formal letter is usually concise and excludes irrelevant details. In contrast, an informal letter can be either brief or lengthy.
9. Language: Formal letters avoid contractions (e.g., "didn’t," "can’t") and abbreviations, instead using full forms. Informal letters, on the other hand, commonly include contractions, abbreviations, idioms, phrasal verbs, slang, and colloquial expressions.

Report Writing

A report is a written description of an event or situation, created for a specific purpose and audience. It provides a detailed account of an incident to inform someone who was not present. A report should be clear, objective, and unbiased.

Types of Reports

Reports can be classified based on various criteria:

• Routine vs. Special Reports:
  • Routine Reports: These are prepared at regular intervals, such as a company’s annual report.
  • Special Reports: These are based on specific investigations or inquiries, such as reports on incidents, research findings, or technical assessments.
• General vs. Confidential Reports:
  • General Reports: Intended for a wide audience, such as members of an organization or the general public through newspapers.
  • Confidential Reports: Meant for a specific individual or group and not for public distribution.
• Formal vs. Informal Reports:
  • Formal Reports: Official documents addressed to a person or group in an official capacity (e.g., company reports, police statements, meeting minutes).
  • Informal Reports: Personal accounts that do not follow a strict format (e.g., a student's experience on their first day of school).

Steps for Writing a Report

1. Creating an Outline: Jot down key points before starting the report to ensure clarity and structure.
2. Headline or Title: Provide a clear title, e.g., REPORT ON THE FIGHT THAT OCCURRED IN THE GREEN HOUSE.
3. Introduction: Briefly introduce the subject of the report. A good introduction should include:
   • Subject matter
   • Thesis statement
   • Main points (enumeration)
   • Opening statement
4. Body Paragraphs: Develop the main points in detail. Each paragraph should focus on a specific point from your outline.
5. Conclusion: Summarize key findings and, if necessary, provide recommendations based on the presented facts.
6. Writer’s Name and Location: Include your full name and relevant location details.
   • If submitting to your school principal, indicate your class.
   • If addressing an external audience, specify your town, state, or country, as applicable.

Article Writing

An article is a piece of writing that discusses an issue of public interest. It is usually directed toward a specific audience. For example, an article written for a school magazine is intended for students, staff, parents, and the school’s proprietor. On the other hand, articles published in national newspapers such as Punch, Nigeria Tribune, or Daily Sun are written for a general audience.

Guidelines for Writing an Article

• Title: Clearly state the title of your article in capital letters.
• Audience Consideration: Keep your audience in mind and think about the effect you want your article to have on the readers.
• Appropriate Tone: Select a tone that suits your subject and audience.
• Logical Presentation: Present your points in a well-organized and logical manner.
• Author’s Name: Write your full name at the end of the article.
• Address: Provide your address below your name.

Other Important Considerations

• An article is not a letter to the editor.
• The topic of the article should be underlined.
• Each idea should be discussed in a separate paragraph for clarity.
• Use formal language. Avoid contractions and impolite expressions.
• If writing about a topic previously discussed by other writers in a newspaper, acknowledge their contribution in your first paragraph.

Speech Writing

A speech is a talk delivered to an audience. It is meant to be spoken aloud after being written. Speech writing allows for some informality in language, as there is often a degree of familiarity between the speaker and the audience.

Features of a Speech

1. Unlike other forms of writing that are strictly formal, a speech includes warmth and a personal connection with the audience. The use of slang and informal expressions is permissible.
2. Words or expressions that reflect shared values and experiences are commonly used. Phrases like “we are all aware that...”, “let us not forget how...”, and “as our people say...” help engage the audience.
3. A good speech should demonstrate:
   • Adequate treatment of the subject matter
   • Originality in approach
   • Appropriate language
   • Clarity of expression
   The speech should be compelling and capable of moving the audience.

Opening or Introduction

In the introduction, the speaker acknowledges important personalities and states the purpose of the speech.

Argumentative essay / Debate

An argumentative essay is a form of writing where you attempt to persuade the reader to accept your point of view on a controversial subject. It is not a quarrel or a shouting match but rather a structured and logical presentation of ideas. In this type of essay, you appeal to both the emotions and reasoning of your readers to convince them to adopt a belief they may not have previously held.

Purpose of an Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay may require you to:

• Prove a point
• Present a viewpoint
• Balance both sides of an argument

Examples of Argumentative Essay Topics

1. Military rule is preferable to civil rule.
2. We are happier than our forefathers were.
3. Female children are more beneficial to parents than male children.
4. Corporal punishment should be abolished in schools.
5. Education should be free at all levels.
6. Science has done more harm than good to society.
7. Polygamy is more relevant to our society than monogamy.

As shown in these topics, an argumentative essay always presents two sides of an issue. Your approach will depend on how the question is framed. If you are asked to support only one side, you should still acknowledge the opposing view to demonstrate awareness. However, your arguments should be strong enough to support your stance.

Features of Argumentative Writing

A. Presenting a Viewpoint

Argumentative writing requires a structured approach where you clearly state your position and support it with logical arguments.

B. Appropriate Introduction

If the argument is presented as a debate, it should have elements of a speech, including formal vocatives.

Structure of an Argumentative Essay

1. Definition of Proposition / Background Information

After introducing the topic, define the subject matter or provide background information on the issue. This may include historical context or key events that have led to the debate. Many disagreements arise due to misinformation, so providing accurate background details helps shape the audience’s understanding.

2. Proof of the Proposition

Logical reasoning is used to persuade the audience. This includes using facts, statistics, and well-structured arguments to support your viewpoint. The essay should have good paragraphing, coherence, and a logical sequence of ideas.

3. Disproof of Competing Arguments

A skilled debater anticipates opposing arguments and refutes them effectively. This strategy, known as refutation, involves acknowledging the opposing viewpoint, making minor concessions if necessary, and then countering it with a stronger argument.

4. Concluding the Argument

The conclusion summarizes key points and restates your position convincingly. A strong conclusion leaves a lasting impact on the reader.

Balancing Two Sides of an Argument

When writing an essay that presents both sides of an argument, the approach differs from a debate where you argue for only one side. A balanced essay fairly represents both viewpoints before drawing a conclusion.

Descriptive Essay

A descriptive essay is a form of writing that uses vivid language to depict a person, place, object, or event. The primary goal is to paint a clear and detailed picture in the reader's mind. While a descriptive essay can focus on anything, it often explores something the writer has personally experienced.

When crafting a descriptive essay, it is essential to incorporate specific details and sensory imagery to make the subject feel real. Additionally, using figurative language such as similes, metaphors, and personification enhances the description, making it more engaging and memorable.

Tips for Writing a Descriptive Essay

• Select a topic that interests you and can be described in detail.
• Use precise details and sensory imagery to bring your subject to life.
• Incorporate figurative language to create a more vivid and lasting impression.
• Structure your thoughts and ideas in a clear and logical manner.
• Carefully proofread your essay before submitting it.

Composition/ Continuos writing

This is typically the first question For composition in WAEC english you are graded on four parameters:

Content

1. Each essay's "content" is marked out of 10.

2. "Content" includes relevance to the topic, audience, and purpose. The language must align with the central theme, showing originality and proper subject treatment. Reproducing knowledge from unrelated subjects (e.g., Biology or Economics) or deliberate distortion of ideas will lead to a mark reduction. Completely irrelevant topics will be awarded zero, and the scripts may be referred to the Chief Examiner. Misinterpreting or abandoning the topic can also result in penalties.

3. Correct grammar and punctuation alone are insufficient. A passage with no language errors can still be penalized if it is poorly phrased or difficult to follow.

4. Unusual approaches will not be dismissed without careful consideration.

Organization

5. Each essay's "organization" is marked out of 10.

6. "Organization" assesses features like paragraphing, emphasis, and idea arrangement. Paragraphs must be coherent chronologically, spatially, and logically.

7. Examiners look for a suitable opening, paragraph development, links between paragraphs, balance, unity, coherence, and a fitting conclusion. Missing or misused features in formats like letters will be penalized. Inadequate preparation often leads to poor paragraphing, with issues such as single-sentence paragraphs or insufficient development.

Expression

8. Each essay's "expression" is marked out of 20.

9. "Expression" evaluates vocabulary appropriate to the audience, atmosphere, or format, such as informal or formal letters. Sentences should be structured correctly, and figurative or descriptive language is encouraged where suitable.

10. Examiners note differences in language use between formats, e.g., formal publications versus informal letters. Mechanical errors may not significantly impact scores unless they disrupt understanding.

11. Many candidates struggle with restricted vocabulary and translating directly from their mother tongue, resulting in unidiomatic expressions. This issue often stems from a lack of extensive reading.

Mechanical Accuracy

13. Each essay's "mechanical accuracy" is marked out of 10.

14. "Mechanical accuracy" focuses on grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Examiners deduct 1/2 mark per error, up to a maximum of 10 marks.

15. Candidates should use punctuation skillfully and avoid common errors highlighted in yearly Chief Examiners’ Reports.

Additional Technical Notes for Marking Essays/Compositions

16. Examiners use positive marking, awarding credit for correct elements and penalizing errors. Penalties are often applied as reduced marks rather than direct deductions.

17. After approximately 450 words, no errors will count toward mechanical accuracy, but they will be considered under "expression." Short compositions will have their maximum mechanical accuracy marks proportionally reduced. While long compositions are not penalized, their length may impact marks under "content," "organization," or "expression."

18. If a candidate answers more than one essay question, only the first will be marked. No penalty applies to the others.

19. Irrelevant topics will score zero for content and organization, with a maximum of 8/20 for expression. Mechanical accuracy will be treated as usual.

20. Essays are judged based on the writer's success in achieving the purpose, whether to entertain, instruct, inform, admonish, or persuade. Factors include:

• Adequacy of subject matter treatment
• Originality of approach
• Appropriateness of language
• Clarity of exposition, narration, or argument
• Balance
• Mechanical accuracy